[173] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. After his father's death in 306, Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (York). [221] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Directed by Francis Lawrence. [78] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [260] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and the memory of both was condemned. [16][17], The ‘Letter of Constantine I to Shapur II’ is a diplomatic exchange located in Book 4 of the Life. [296], The Orthodox Church considers Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine), having a feast day on 21 May,[297] and calls him isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar;[202] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. The Life of Constantine I Timeline created by abhinator8. [215] He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. Eusebius however has placed it in Book IV, after Constantine’s wars against the Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, thus moving its chronology to after AD335. Life Insurance in Constantine on YP.com. Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organized them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [68] In the late spring or early summer of AD 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [229] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptized on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. He was the eldest son of … According to this legend, Constantine was soon baptized and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Palace. [193], Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 5; Storch, 145–55. Eusebius' Life of Constantine is the most important single record of Constantine, the emperor who turned the Roman Empire from prosecuting the Church to supporting it, with huge and lasting consequences for Europe and Christianity. [118] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. He was born at Naissus, today's city of Niš in Upper Moesia (modern Serbia and Montenegro), to Constantius I Chlorus and an innkeeper's daughter, Helen. [189], An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. [126] He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius. Most of the work is devoted to the illustration of Constantine’s personal piety. [291][292], The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. [154], Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. Constantine served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius campaigning in the eastern provinces against barbarians and the Persians, before being recalled west in 305 to fight under his father in Britain. Even letter exchanges between the two were infrequent. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man,[39] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum, in 284 or 285. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [155] He still controlled Rome's praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls. [79] His advisers calmed him, and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [247] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. [113], The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. [204] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod. He took the town quickly. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. Constantine is contrasted with the tyrannical Diocletian, whose persecution of Christians and oppressive rule accentuates the presentation of Constantine as a strong Christian and a just man. The Dude Abides, located at 160 N. Washington St., and the Constantine Wellness Center, located at 140 S. Washington St., both opened up in the last two weeks, a big step for the village in terms of medical marijuana sales. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [55] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [26] Unlike the other letters quoted by him this one an extract, lacking the formal greeting found in other imperial documents quoted in the Vita and is the only one in which Constantine is dealing with secular affairs. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312 AD, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia). [127], Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. [29] The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. Near the Emperor's death, Eusebius focuses on Constantine’s mental and spiritual strength, as well as his physical strength, helping finish the portrait of a nearly godlike man. Constantine postponed his “Christian” baptism until a few days before his death in 337 C.E. Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26; Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3. A single traveler costs: $1,315 per month. [10], Eusebius's known sources for painting a textual portrait of Constantine and his rule come from eight legal texts, forty-six biblical references, and eight literary references. [227][228] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone. Pagans showered him with praise, such as Praxagoras of Athens, and Libanius. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. [200] According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. Constantine I (Latin: Flavius Valerius Constantinus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, translit. [308] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones (Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen (Constantine, 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [167] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place,[168] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [188] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. By 311 AD, however, he was spreading another version. See reviews, photos, directions, phone numbers and more for the best Life Insurance in Constantine, MI. Cameron and Hall, 206–7; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. [50], Constantine's parents and siblings, the dates in square brackets indicate the possession of minor titles, Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [33] It is clear that Eusebius was not the courtier he had painted himself as in Life of Constantine. [262] At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumors to that effect. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule;[74] Hispania, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [316] In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III[317] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri. By the spring of 310 AD, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. Fowden, Elizabeth Key, (2006) ‘Constantine and the Peoples of the Eastern Frontier’, in Lenski, N. This page was last edited on 23 August 2020, at 17:30. [23] Elizabeth Fowden argues for the letters authenticity, viewing its content as in keeping with Constantine's' vision of himself as an ambassador of God on earth and his desire for a universal Christian empire. Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T.D. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submitted to Roman law so long as he retained his kingship. [206] Although this characterization of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. [67], Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. A Comparison of Constantine's Piety with the Wickedness of the Persecutors. Constantius was quick to intervene. Constantine was born in Naissus, Moesia Superior (modern-day Serbia). [210] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century[253] but remained outside the senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [14] Similarly, Curran argues that anti-pagan pronouncements were not actually put into practice, rather reflecting the emperor’s personal stance. It was never completed due to the death of Eusebius in 339. [288] Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing. During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed "Constantina" in honor of emperor Constantine the Great. Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine," 148–9. Divided into four books,[2] Life of Constantine begins with the declaration that Constantine is immortal. Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. [313] Paul Veyne's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". Constantine (Arabic: قسنطينة‎ Qusanṭīnah), also spelled Qacentina or Kasantina, is the capital of Constantine Province in northeastern Algeria. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius' Vita, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. See reviews, photos, directions, phone numbers and more for the best Life Insurance in Constantine, KY. [137] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance,[138] ignored all these cautions. [46] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [115] Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. As Cameron and Hall have highlighted, the entire Life of Constantine can be understood as structured around the three forty-year phases of Moses’s life: 1) birth and upbringing; 2) the freeing of the leaders’ persecuted people; and 3) the provision of laws, overthrowing of idolatry, and building of the tabernacle (Constantine builds himself a tabernacle to pray in in II.12; see Life of Constantine, p. 193). Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full augustus. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold. Life Insurance in Constantine on YP.com. Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". [266], Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. [285], Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles,[286] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis. [21] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini,[22] a work of uncertain date,[23] which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [43] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an augustus. [295] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. Statistic Count Raw Constantine / 100k People Michigan / 100k People National / 100k People; Total Crimes Per 100K: 28: 1,330.2: 2,022.5: 2,476.7: Violent Crime: 6 Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 70–72. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd. [213] Constantine had recognized the shift of the center of gravity of the Empire from the remote and depopulated West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital[214] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [73] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. [12] These imperial letters, described or transcribed, frequently relate to religious matters concerning the treatment of pagans and Christians. [90] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian himself. [241] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. Its Introduction and Commentary open up the many important issues the Life of Constantine raises. [209] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. This English translation is the first based on modern critical editions. However, the Arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. Emperor Julian the Apostate (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution[91] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [46], Diocletian divided the Empire again in AD 293, appointing two caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Birth dates vary, but most modern historians use ", thehttp://www.stconstantine.org/OurParish/OurPatronSaint/index.php. [65], Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. Constantine is 72.04% less expensive than New York (without rent, see our cost of … Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. [202], In the year 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began to oppress Christians anew,[205] Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill.[274] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit). During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan,[199] [42], In July AD 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterranea (now Niš, Serbia), he was the son of Flavius Constantius, an Illyrian army officer who became one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy. [311] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. Eusebius’ treatment of Constantine has generated much of the controversy surrounding the text. [121] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311 AD, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [47] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this bullion minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all. [258], Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. Cost of Living in Constantine. An amount below 100 means Constantine is cheaper than the US average. As emperor, Constantine enacted administrative, financial, social and military reforms to strengthen the empire. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant. Constantine is connected to Algiers and Annaba by train. [307] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [160] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [18] It has been dated between 324-336. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. It subsequently became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years, the later Eastern Roman Empire being referred to as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians. [26] The discovery of the ‘London Papyrus’, an independent imperial document which was found to be quoted honestly by Eusebius in the Life Book 2, was taken by many as a sign of his honesty in his use of imperial texts. [264] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [280], Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. One element of Constantine's pre-trenchcoat life that's consistent among various versions of the character is that his career path wasn't always geared towards skulking around in … [139] Early in the spring of 312 AD,[140] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian, his magister officiorum, as nominal Augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. The work progresses into Constantine’s time under the Emperor Diocletian. 274. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine, "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Constantine the Great", "Saint Constantine Ukrainian Catholic Church - Patron Saint", "Portrait Head of the Emperor Constantine, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 26.229", "The sign in the sky that changed history", Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD, "CHURCH FATHERS: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius)", "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople", "Barba – NumisWiki, The Collaborative Numismatics Project", "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš", 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001, On the Question of Constantine's Conversion to Christianity, Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings, "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church", BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great, Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York', Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart, Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII, Pope Pius XII Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_the_Great&oldid=1011131455, Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles, Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth, Converts to Christianity from pagan religions, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2020, Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images, Articles with disputed statements from March 2021, CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324). He was born in circa 274 AD in Nassius, which is in Upper Moesia, Yugoslavia. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. Eusebius also takes great pain in describing himself as very close to the Emperor, when in fact, the opposite is most likely. [96] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe. [143] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [164] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. [198], In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester. In History. A cost of living index above 100 means Constantine, Michigan is more expensive. The name "Constantine" itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. [134] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra. [103] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 AD, but soon fell out with his son. The work provides scholars with one of the most comprehensive sources for the religious policies of Constantine's reign. Odahl, 82–83. [166] In Eusebius's account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum. [203] In either 314 or 316 AD, the two Augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. [56] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution. The majority of Constantine’s imperial letters appear in book 3. A family costs: $838 per month. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. [161] On 28 October 312 AD, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units (comitatenses), and garrison troops (limitanei) capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Chapter 1. Life of Constantine remains the most important work for examining the reign of Constantine. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. Barnes accepts the letter as genuine, its content in keeping with Constantine's' own view of his career, especially in the period of reform after the defeat of Licinius. [59] In his later writings, he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God",[60] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. [20] He makes reference to previous emperors who fell from power due to their persecution of Christians, Valerian chief among them, who was himself defeated and captured by the Persians, an event which Constantine ascribes to the Christian deity. Constantine I (Latin: Flavius Valerius Constantinus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος, translit. [7] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem and became the holiest place in Christendom. [183] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. These are abundant and detailed,[13] but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period[14] and are often one-sided;[15] no contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. Early life. Quality of Life Index using cost of living, purchasing power, safety, pollution, climate and other available information collected about Constantine, Algeria

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